Definitions for a Text's Vocabulary Words Can Be Found in the Glossary.
I. THE Main LAYERS OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY
The word stock of the English language is divided into three layers: neutral, literary, and colloquial ones.
Neutral words possess no stylistic connotation and are suitable for any communicative state of affairs. Literary words are used in official, scientific, poetic messages, in authorial speech, descriptions, considerations. Colloquial words are employed in non-official everyday communication, informal letters, diaries, certain passages of memoirs, in the types of soapbox copying everyday oral advice (in the dialogue of a prose work).
Literary and colloquial words can be further divided into common and special vocabulary.
Common majority is known to and used by most native speakers in generalized formal or informal communication. Special vocabulary serves particular communicative purposes and is subdivided into subgroups. Literary special vocabulary falls into: a) poetic words; b) archaisms; c) barbarisms; d) terms.
II. LITERARY (elevated) words �take their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of literary words approaches the neutral layer and has an obvious tendency to pass into that layer� (I.R. Galperin). These are slightly academic words used automatically by cultivated speakers (e.g. prevail, inherent, activity are not used by uneducated speakers). The upper range can be plant in words, used in poetry and high prose (e.g. defunct, steed). The lines of demarcation between these ranges also as between groups of words are blurred.
II. i. Common literary words (CLW) form a meaning layer of the literary stratum. They are chiefly used in writing or in such types of oral advice as public speeches, official negotiations, etc. CLW are either formal, sometimes high-flown synonyms of neutral words (e.g. proceed � keep, reply � answer, parent � father), or popular terms of science (e.m. claustrophobia, ruminant). CLW are mostly loan words, Latin or Greek. The combination of neutral or colloquial words and their common literary counterparts often produces comic effect, e.1000.��I say, Owl,� said Christopher Robin, �isn�t this fun? I am on an island! (�) �The flood- level has reached an unprecedented height�. �The who?� �There�due south a lot of water well-nigh,� explained Owl.
To use CLW instead of their current substitutes in an unsuitable context challenges attention and gives the impression that the writer is a greenhorn who has learnt the linguistic communication only from books.
Ii. 2. Poetic words are characterized past the highest degree of elevation.
In the 17-19thursday centuries these words were widely used in poetry to contribute to its emotional appeal. Poeticisms were synonymous with neutral words (e.g. steed meant horse, quoth � said, woe � sorrow). This group of words includes: a) pure poeticisms: e.g. brine, anarch, b) archaic words (east.g. delve � dig, commix � mix, ringlet � disturbance), c) historical words (due east.one thousand. argosy, cask).
Poetic words are unsuitable for plain prose. Nowadays they are non favoured even past poets. In contemporary British and American literature these words are sometimes used in combination with neutral ones to achieve ironic effect.
e.g. In fumes similar that you�d need a protective mask to check your car oil, permit lone sleep. My eyes are watering, and there must be less than a l-l chance of my surviving the night. I pull the sheets over my head and slip off into a deep and toxic slumber (P.McCarthy). slumber (north. poetic) sleep.
2. iii. Primitive words.
Archaism is an old give-and-take which is either completely or practically out of utilize in nowadays day language. Co-ordinate to the reasons of their disappearance from the language, archaic words can be divided into:
a) historical archaisms, i.due east. words whose referent has already disappeared (e.g. vassal, yeoman, etc.);
b) archaic words proper, i.e. words which have been replaced past their synonyms (e.1000. brethren � brothers, deem � think).
I.R.Galperin distinguishes three stages in the aging process, according to which three subgroups are singled out:
a) obsolescent words, or old-fashioned words gradually passing out of full general use (eastward.g. wilt, thy, thee, art, thou);
b) obsolete words which are no longer used but tin can be all the same recognized (e.g. methinks � information technology seems to me);
c) primitive words proper, i.e. words which can not be recognized (a losel � a lazy fellow, kine � pl. moo-cow).
Thus, the first of the crumbling process of a word is marked by decrease in its usage.
Archaisms are most frequently found in poetry, fiction, legal and ritual contexts, in dialectal oral communication. The use of primitive words in fiction, for instance in dialogues of historical novels, seeks to evoke the style of older speech, hence the flavour of the previous centuries. E.g. �Prithee, young one, who art thousand, and what has ailed thy mother to bedizen thee in this strange fashion? Art grand a Christian child, - ha?� (N.Hawthorne). However, archaization does not mean consummate reproduction of the voice communication of by epochs; information technology is effected by the awarding of carve up archaic words. The abundant use of archaisms in contemporary literature seems foreign and unsuitable. Even when used to requite colour to conversation in historical romances, archaic manner is more likely to irritate the reader than to please him. Nevertheless, writers with a strong feel for the linguistic communication may on occasion deliberately apply primitive words to emphasize a certain indicate or to create a mood. Some archaisms may count as inherently funny words and are used for humorous effect. In verse archaisms highlight the full general colouring of elevation. The colouring may be described as both poetic and solemn. In legal and ritual writing and speech archaisms are used as function of a specific jargon (eastward.g. heretofore, hereunto, thereof) or formula (e.one thousand. With this ring I thee wed). They produce the colouring of solemnity.
II.4. Barbarismsare words of foreign origin which have non entirely been alloyed into the English language linguistic communication. They bear the appearance of a borrowing, eastward.grand. viva voce, a propos, beau monde, etc.
Barbarisms and foreign words are used to supply local colour; to reproduce speech of a local inhabitant.
Barbarisms differ from strange words:
| Barbarisms | Strange words |
| a) vest to the English vocabulary; b) are fixed in English dictionaries; c) are non italicized in printed texts; d) can be ofttimes used in literary English language. e.g. And so one morn, apropos of nothing, she explains why she reads everything that appears on Idiot box. | a)do not belong to the English word-stock; b)are not registered by English dictionaries; c) are italicized in printed texts to show that they are of alien nature; d)are occasionally used in the English literary language. e.yard. They are all enrolled at oneeducational establishment or another for the sake of the bill of fare d�etudiant. (Student�s carte du jour, allowing many concessions). |
Two. 5. Termsare words denoting objects, processes, phenomena of scientific discipline, humanities, technique (e.k. vector, palatalization, pachyderms, etc). The denotative meanings of terms are conspicuously defined. A proper term is monosemantic and has no synonyms. They vest to the scientific style, but may as well appear in other styles. In professional spheres the term performs no expressive or aesthetic part. In non-professional spheres (imaginative prose, newspaper texts, everyday oral speech) popular terms produce unlike stylistic effects, for instance humorous ane: �Here we were, perilously at sea, final extinction a daily possibility, and all xestobium rufo-villosum could think about was sex� (J.Barnes). They can make speech sound �scientific-similar�, or create some kind of professional atmosphere.
Three. Vernacular (degraded) wordsare considered to be more emotionally coloured than literary ones. They as well take their upper and lowerranges. The words of upper range (common colloquial ones) can easily pass into the neutral layer. This part of the English language vocabulary is used by most native speakers in generalized breezy communication. Special colloquial words plant the medial and the everyman ranges, and are characterized past dissimilar caste of their stylistic degradation and social acceptance. There are three master approaches to the classification of special colloquial words. Some scholars (H.W. Fowler) maintain that jargon is the most applied term including argot, cant, slang, dialect, etc. Others (V.A. Homyakov) consider slang to bea generic term for such notions as jargonisms, argot, professionalisms and vulgarisms. Still other linguists (I.R.Galperin, Y.Thousand.Skrebnev) tend to distinguish slang from jargon, on the one mitt, and from vulgarisms, on the other. This manual acquaints the learner with the third widely accepted point of view.
III. 1. Common vernacular words constitute a part of the Standard English. They have a slight degree of familiarity or informality and mark the message in which they are used as not-official, conversational. These words are non homogeneous: some colloquialisms are close to slang, jargonisms, etc. Other words approach the neutral bulk and then much that their deposition remains unobserved in the act of speaking.
Colloquialisms include:
a) colloquial words proper, which have no one-word counterparts in the neutral and literary sphere, due east.yard. molly-coddle � an effeminate man;
b) phonetic variants of neutral words:
� contractions of words, e.g. hippo <hippopotamus, fest < festival;
� contractions of word combinations, e.thou. south�long < so long, c�mon < come on, gonna < going;
� contractions of auxiliary and modal verbs, e.g. she�ll, there�s, he�due south gone.
Such words are markers of colloquial speech; they are used to relieve articulatory efforts.
c) words which change in vernacular spoken communication both their grammatical form and their lexico-stylistic significant past means of:
� affixation, e.g. Scotty < Scot, piggy < pig;
� word composition, eastward.g. Beatle-mania;
� conversion, e.g. to angel �to support a movie, play, music grouping by giving coin, to bag � to have something without permission;
� clipping and affixation, east.thou. alkie < alcoholic.
d) words, irresolute their lexical and lexico-stylistic meaning, without any grammatical changes:
� interjections, which serve emotive and expressive functions in informal conversations, e.g. Practiced Heavens! My God! Skilful God!
� words, which have both denotative and connotative meanings but connotative meaning prevails, eastward.one thousand. guts 1. (inform.) courage and determination; ii. the organs inside your body.
� colloquial meanings of polysemantic words. Their primary meanings put them in the neutral sphere, while their figurative meanings pertain to the vernacular sphere. Eastward.g. the word wallflower means both a sweet-smelling plant and someone at a party who is not asked to dance.
Three. 2. Slangis a group of breezy, nonstandard words and phrases. They are mostly shorter lived than the expressions of ordinary vernacular speech. Slang appears for a number of reasons. Information technology tends to satisfy a variety of emotional and intellectual needs of people:
a) Information technology is used for the pleasure of novelty or being in the fashion;
b) It emphasizes the ridiculous aspects of things, e.one thousand. idiot box < Tv set, fender-bender < careless commuter;
c) Being alien to pomposity, information technology helps to reduce solemnity, pain or tragedy, east.g. meat wagon � an ambulance;
d) It eases the manner for smoother social contacts by putting the speaker in tune with his companions and including the sense of intimacy;
e) It increases the store of terse and hit words and provides the vocabulary for new shades of meaning.
Slang occupies the middle ground between the standard and informal words accepted by the general public and the special words and expressions known simply to comparatively small social subgroups (jargonisms). It tin serve every bit a bridge or a barrier either helping words that take been used by a specific group of people to enter the language of the general public, or preventing them from doing so. Thus American slang has provided such words as mob, cowboy, racketeer, motion picture etc. for standard or informal speech.
Experts maintain that now in the Uk there are at least 90 000 slang words and phrase in common utilize, 10% of which tin can be traced to what we eat and potable, e.g. cake hole � mouth, berries � coin, jam pies � optics.
Replacement of worn-out words by new ones makes slang very rich in synonyms. Lexicologists say that in that location are at least 100 words to express the idea of a pretty daughter, due east.g. cookie, wren, hot number, sugar, etc.
The linguistic processes forming slang are the same equally those by which other words in the language change their course or meaning. They typically result from playing on words, renaming things and deportment, inventing new words, misapplying the quondam ones. Some of these are employment of metaphor (due east.g. bag < an unattractive woman, fox < an attractive one), metonymy (e.g. brain < a good educatee, common salt < a crewman), simile (e.thousand. every bit daft as a brush < very featherbrained), distortion of sounds in words (due east.g. Madchester), clipping and abbreviation (east.g. Manc < a person from Manchester), generalization and specialization. The English word trip is an example of a term that kickoff became specialized to hateful an experience someone has being affected past a drug, such as LSD. Then it generalized once more to mean any experience that is amusing and very different from normal.
Three. 3. Jargon words are emotive and expressive words used past limited groups of people united either professionally (professionalisms) or socially (jargonisms proper).
Professionalisms are formed according to the existing word-building patterns or present existing words in new meanings, e.thou. hoofer < tap-dancer, baby of the house - the youngest fellow member of Parliament, sewing machine < auto gun. Covering the field of special professional cognition which is semantically limited, they offer a vast diversity of synonymic choices for naming 1 and the same professional person item, e.grand. box, toaster, fuzzbal toast <estimator.
Sometimes professionalisms come into popular use. Due east.g. early aviators used the term bond out for �getting out of an aeroplane that was in trouble�. Today someone tin can bail out of any kind of troublesome or abrasive situation (a bad marriage).
Jargonismsproper are used past definite social groups (age, ethnic, criminal, hobby or special interest group), eastward.yard. junker � drug addict, number three � cocaine.
A peculiar place is occupied by �cant�, a secret lingo of society�s underworld of criminals. The striving for secrecy was mayhap just the principal reason why information technology appeared. Nowadays, the words suggest a common bond of understanding and a special relationship between those who apply them. Such words would non usually work their style into general use, merely the exploitation of criminal offense plots by films and television receiver has helped to popularize them. Nearly everyone knows that a hitting human being is a hired killer and a wise man is a trusted mob insider. Gangs utilise the word turf for the territory they control, etc.
Deceit words are for the most part ordinary English words with transferred meanings. E.thou. the phrase No soap ways that somebody�s plan didn�t work.
Jargonisms can not be confined to cant words only. In United kingdom and in the USA about whatsoever social grouping of people has its own jargon.
III. 4. Vulgar words.This stylistically lowest group consists of words which are considered as well offensive for polite usage. At that place are dissimilar degrees of vulgarity in swear-words. A lesser degree is presented by expletives such equally encarmine, damn, to hell, son of a bowwow. Expletives give vent to strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation, etc. They have lost most of their shock power nowadays.
A greater degree of vulgarity is observed in obscene words, also known equally taboo or iv-letter of the alphabet words, due east.m. shit. According to V. A. Maltzev,only 8 of them, in fact, consist of but four letters; one refers to a role of the body; five pertain to the excretory functions; ii deal with sexual matters.
�The history of vulgarisms reflects the history of social ethics. In Middle ages and down into the 16thursday century indecent words were accepted in oral speech and afterward Caxton even admitted to the printed page� (Five.A.Kukharenko). In the eighteen-nineteenth centuries the morality forbade the use of such words as seem quite harmless to united states of america, e.g. bloody, cursed, damn, hell of, etc. In the 20thursday century the Boston Globe kept typing out the full name of the Boston Redevelopment Say-so because the editors thought it would exist inappropriate to utilise the acronym BRA in a family newspaper. Nowadays there is very little that is forbidden in the media. Many words in one case considered taboo are now used nearly everywhere � on Television, on the radio, or in print (e.g. the colloquial expression for �bovine excrement�). All the same, there are SOME words which are forbidden.
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